needs: Dictionary Information

Need —v. 1 stand in want of; require. 2 (foll. By to + infin.; 3rd sing. Present neg. Or interrog. Need without to) be under the necessity or obligation (needs to be done well; he need not come; need you ask-). —n. 1 requirement (my needs are few). 2 circumstances requiring some course of action (no need to worry; if need be).

Needs adv. Archaic (usu. Prec. Or foll. By must) of necessity.

needs: Geographic Locations

2156669 Mount Duneed Mount Duneed Mount Duneed -38.24089 144.33748 P PPLX AU 07 26490 1555 24 Australia/Melbourne 2019-07-18

2641827 needingworth Needingworth needingworth 52.33051 -0.03116 P PPL GB ENG C3 12UE 12UE044 2191 15 Europe/London 2018-07-03

2641828 Needham Market Needham Market nydham markt,نیدهام مارکت 52.1555 1.0516 P PPL GB ENG N5 42UE 42UE069 4528 25 Europe/London 2018-07-03

2656207 Barton under Needwood Barton under Needwood Barton,Barton under Needwood 52.76268 -1.724 P PPL GB ENG M9 41UC 41UC003 3796 60 Europe/London 2018-07-03

1261444 needamangalam Needamangalam nedamangalam, needamangalam, nidamangalam, nīdāmāngalam, nei ai da mang ge a la mu,nidamangalama,nitamankalam,Недамангалам,नीडामंगलम,नीदमंगलम,নীদামঙ্গলম,நீடாமங்கலம்,內埃達芒格阿拉姆,内埃达芒格阿拉姆 10.77378 79.41875 P PPL IN 25 619 5807 9125 21 Asia/Kolkata 2024-01-06

2750460 Neede Neede Nede 52.13417 6.61389 P PPL NL 03 1859 7730 20 Europe/Amsterdam 2017-10-17

4098161 Winfield Winfield luxapallila, Needmore,Uinfild,Vinfild,Winfield,uinfirudo,vinaphilda,wen fei er de,wynfyld,wynfyld alabama,Винфилд,Вінфілд,Уинфилд,وينفيلد,وینفیلد، آلاباما,विनफिल्ड,ウィンフィールド,温菲尔德 33.92899 -87.81725 P PPL US AL 093 4570 145 145 America/Chicago 2017-03-09

4530353 Bernice Bernice Bernice,Needmore 36.61591 -94.91774 P PPL US OK 041 562 232 235 America/Chicago 2011-05-14

4618057 Dickson Dickson Dickson,Dickson Station,Forty-Two,Smeedville,Sneedsville,Sneedville,Sneedville Station 36.077 -87.38779 P PPL US TN 043 15359 245 248 America/Chicago 2017-03-09

4658683 Sneedville Sneedville Greasy Rock,Sneedsville,Sneedville 36.52981 -83.2174 P PPLA2 US TN 067 1346 357 360 America/New

York 2017-03-09

4713946 Needville Needville Needville,Nidvil,Nidvill,Schendelville,nidobiru,nydfyl,nydwyl tgzas,nydwyl tkzas,Нидвил,Нидвилл,Нідвілл,نيدفيل,نیدویل، تکزاس,نیدویل، تگزاس,ニードビル 29.39941 -95.83773 P PPL US TX 157 3063 28 31 America/Chicago 2017-03-09

4945055 Needham Needham Nidam,Nidkham,nydham,nydham masachwst,Нидам,Нидхам,نيدهام,نیدهام، ماساچوست 42.28343 -71.23283 P PPL US MA 021 44105 28886 53 58 America/New

York 2017-05-23

4954738 Wellesley Wellesley Uehlsli,Vehlslehj,Velesli,Wellesley,West Needham,wei er si li,wlzly masachwst,Велесли,Вэлслэй,Уэлсли,ولزلی، ماساچوست,韋爾斯利 42.29649 -71.29256 P PPL US MA 021 74175 27982 38 44 America/New

York 2017-05-23

5376358 Needles Needles EED,Needles,Nidls,Nijduls,The Needles,ni de er si,nidalsa,nideulseu,nydlys,nydlz kalyfrnya,Нидлс,Нийдълс,نيدليس,نیدلز، کالیفرنیا,नीडल्स,尼德尔斯,니들스 34.84806 -114.61413 P PPL US CA 071 4984 151 151 America/Los

Angeles 2017-03-09

5491288 Shiprock Shiprock naataaniineez, naatʼáanii Nééz,Needle,Needles,Sebatai,Ship Rock,Shiprock,Shiprok,Tooh,Tsebidai,shippurokku(nyumekishiko zhou),shybrwk,shyprak,shyprak nyw mkzykw,xi pu luo ke,Шипрок,شيبروك,شیپراک,شیپراک، نیو مکزیکو,シップロック（ニューメキシコ州）,希普洛克 36.78555 -108.68703 P PPL US NM 045 8295 1492 1494 America/Denver 2011-05-14

needs: Historical Excerpts

For more than six years Professor Geoffrey Bruun has guided and encouraged me in this project. I find it difficult indeed to express adequately my gratitude for his patient direction, expert criticism and unfailing ability to keep within bounds a project that threatened at times to spill over into volumes. I want to thank Karl Hill, Chairman of the mathematics Department of the Baldwin School of New York City, for permission to use his Eucyclic Equal-Area Projection (Copyright 1958) as the basis for the excellent maps produced by Samuel Mogavero, art instructor at the Scarsdale Junior High School, Scarsdale, New York. I am indebted to Edna Miller and Mr. Alogavero for the illustrations which add an important dimension to the book, and to Use Behrendt for the preparation of the index. To my friend Joan Harrison goes my deep appreciation not only for her research for the first five units of the Guide and, her help with the proofs, but also for the many ways she contributed to making the whole task easier and more pleasant. I am also indebted to my dear friends, Lloyd Bell, whose provocative questions inspired the belief that such a book was needed, Ernst Behrendt, Elinor Lawless, and Bumpei Usui for their constant encouragement and “willing ears!’ I am grateful to the editors at Henry Holt who made the production of this book possible, to the heads of the Orientalia and Near Eastern Divisions of the Library of Congress and the New York Public Library for patiently answering my many questions, and to the librarians of the Scarsdale and AVhite Plains Public Libraries. A special word of gratitude is due my husband, children, and parents for their understanding, love, and assistance under what must often have been trying circumstances.





General Economy Agriculture. Early peoples were skillful shepherds, farmers; well-irrigated fields yielded vegetables, grain, dates, olives, vineyards, fruit orchards; most domesticated animals now known were worked in early period; cattle were bred; oxen joined to plough; elephant may have been tamed in India, where water buffalo were used and domestic fowl believed to have originated; linen, flax, and cotton produced in Egypt; many varieties of fruits and grains grown in Fertile Crescent. Commerce. Trade developed when unfavorable agricultural conditions existed or need arose to dispose of surplus products; babylonians were early businessmen and traders; trade with Egypt flourished by 2700; phoenicians left rocky terrain for the sea cl 500; traded in metals, glass, ivory, purple dyes; bought raw materials, metals, and slaves from Lebanese in return for wool; phoenicians credited with first organized slave trade; Cretans traded their pottery, textiles, and metal goods with Egypt in 2d millennium bc; iron, tin, and silver from western Europe supplied the eastern Mediterranean; carried largely by phoenicians, leading merchant sailors by 1200; later by Greeks; silk, known in China as early as 3d millennium, carried overland to India, cl 500, later to Middle East. Finance. Barter the first universal method of exchange; gold and silver came into use at an early date; in China copper coins replaced cowrie shells as the principal measure of value; babylonians and Assyrians excellent financiers; used clay tablets; established business forms, including contracts, letters of credit, commercial loans, and receipts; taxes and rates of interest were regulated.





Asia CHINA. Chou feudalism repudiated, c338 BC, by Ch’ins; reforms retained by Han Dynasty, 202; land tenure, taxation, currency, and even the length of cart axles standardized; need for horses from central Asia





America MAYA. Calendars. Two Mayan calendars: haab, 365-day year, recurred in 52-year cydes; tzolkin, sacred or ceremonial year, 260 days, 13 months, 20 days; corrected calendar, 18 ihontlis, 20 days, one month o£ 5 days; considered more accurate than Gregorian, Mathematics. Developed accurate time computation based on vigesimal ratlier than decimal system; no fractions; used bars and dots; bar equal to 5, dot, 1; pictures or glyphs for names. Asia CHINA. Ts ai Iwn. Eunuch at Han court; produced paper made of vegetable fibers:bark, hemp, rags, fish nets; paper rolls largely replaced bamboo and silk as writing material; Sun Tsu. Mathematician; author, Suan-shing (arithmetical Classic); employed decimal system of numeration; no zero. Chang Heng. outstanding astronomer; listed stars; corrected calendar; fixed value of pi as square root of 10; rediscovered use of magnetic needle; invented seismograph, 132 ad., Uu Hui. Mathematician; discussed methods of measuring magnitudes; inferred knowledge of algebraic procedure. Tsu Ch ung-chih. Mathematician; correctly calculated pi. Chang Chung-ching. ‘Sage of medicine’; known for treatise on typhoid.fever. Hua T o. Famed early surgeon; credited with knowledge of anesthetics and many kinds of operations. INDIA. Aryabhata. Mathematician; synthesized developments in numbers, notation; used system of. place notation based on 10; employed.Greek methods for computing volumes of pyramids and cones; gave pi value of 3.1416; table of sines; correct. formula for area of circle, triangle, trapezium; executed, quadratic equa-, tions;^ excellent work in astronomy; explained, eclipses, equinoxes; developed epicycle theory similar to Ptol■ emy’s.





MUSIC Rome Popular music of the Romans created and performed for festivals, contests, and colossal public spectacles was, of necessity, loud; only large clioruses and several groups of musicians could be heard in amphitheaters; huge instruments, including hydraulic and pneumatic organs, required several performers to operate; classical style, in poor imitation of Greeks, used by smaller ensembles. CHRISTIAN MUSIC. Ignatius, St., Bishop of Antioch; introduced antiphonal singing based on Hebrew psalm singing, Greek chorus, and Roman citharoedic chants. Basil, St., the Great. c330-379. Father of Greek Church; revised liturgy; created one of main types of Mass. Chrysostom, John, St. Greatest of Greek fathers; developed second main type of Mass; oriental influence strong; psalms sung antiphonally and responsorially, Ambrose, St. Bishop of Milan; interested in reforming ceremony and music of Church; attempted to eliminate secular and pagan elements; wrote excellent sermons, hymns; regarded as founder of hymnody and Ambrosian cliant; used four authentic modes comparable to Greek primary modes; no meter. Prudentius. Early Spanish Church poet; composed hymns considered more brilliant than those of Ambrose. General. monasteries, centers of learning, trained choirs; fulfilled need for singers as liturgy became more elaborate and congregational singing declined; School of Chant established, Rome, early 4th century; melodies handed down aurally from master to pupils in all schools; growing repertory increased difficulty. Asia CHINA. Music and poetry closely linked; Shen Yiieh, poet, led in development of music as separate art form; important part of dance program.





The armored knight enjoyed a special place in medieval European warfare and society. The granting of land to these privileged horsemen created a self-sufficient manor system and established the basis of feudalism. Byzantium, under Justinian, became the most prosperous center of trade and commerce in Europe and western Asia. An important social contribution of the period was the preservation of Roman law in the Code of Justinian. Baghdad became the center of the growing Moslem Empire. In China, Ch ong-an, the T’ang capital, represented the advanced commercial and technological development of the Far East. Japan adopted Chinese fiscal policies to its economic needs.





ENGLAND. Adelard of Bath. mathematician, scientist, author; traveled widely; studied University of Cordova, Spain; translated Euclid, al-Khwarizmi; Natural Questions, important work; influenced grosseteste and Bacon. bartholomaeus Anglicus (the Englishman). Franciscan friar; famed author of De proprietatibus rerum, medieval encyclopedia; material outdated: based on superstition; popular. Gilbert the Englishman. Early physician; relied heavily on medieval astrology and magic; attempted to introduce ideas of Moslem doctors. MOSLEM SPAIN. ibn-Zuhr (Avenzoar). outstanding physician, writer; admired Galen; opposed reliance on superstition, astrology; great clinician; prescribed antidotes for poisons; believed to have diagnosed cancer of stomach; author of Teisir, medical work, translated into Hebrew, 1280, into Latin, 1480; probably teacher of Averroes. al-Zarka1i. Astronomer; improved astrolabe, astronomical instruments. Asia CHINA. Although Chinese scientists were outstanding scholars, mathematicians, observers, they made no, major discoveries: they did, however, introduce many vital technological innovations: the magnetic compass, so important in navigation, the ‘southpointing’ needle as known in antiquity; discovery that a steel needle rubbed against lodestone pointed South, was mentioned by Shen Kua (d. 1093): by 12th century, compass used in navigation; carried West by Arabs; gunpowder was applied to warfare with use of grenades, 1 2th century; other explosives used against Mongols, 13th century. INDIA. Bhaskara. Foremost mathematician, astronomer of period; early anticipation of differential calculus; probably invented radical sign, other algebraic symbols; conception of negative quantity; sought, square roof of 2; important influence.





Bayeux Tapestry. Completed in English embroidery workshop; eloquent pictorial document; one of rare secular subjects. Gothic Art. culmination of major artistic acliievements of medieval period; Gothic architecture saw merging of interior and exterior design, creating unity; distinct new sculptural style emerged in IStli century; stained glass windows achieved radiant effects by prismatic transformation and combination of light and color; introduction of new secular themes in illuminated manuscripts enhanced that art. Architecture. Important substitution of a pointed for a rounded arch; pointed arch allowed greater freedom of vertical motion; crowns of individual vaults could be raised to equal heights; pointing and narrowing of arclies allowed for changes in shapes; additional support needed where vault rested on wall solved by use of buttress; flying buttresses’ long, thin, stone supports bolstered exterior of building at various points; Gothic building broader, side chapels added; brilliant example. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Chartres; Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris, prototype of Gothic arcliitecture, became model for cathedrals, including Rlieims (rebuilt 1210), Amiens (1220-88), Notre Dame, Paris (1163-1235), and Rouen (begun 1200) Sculpture. iconographic carving in depth; 2,000 figures on exterior of Chartres; trumeau figures at Amiens, vigorous naturalism. Stained Glass. Developed art by second half of 12th century; allied to art of mosaics, replaced mural and ceiling painting; abstract two-dimensional design, 175 panels at Chartres; rose windows of Chartres, Rheims, Notre Dame, Paris, exceptional examples.





The most notable political trend in Europe during the 13th and 14th centuries was the rise of monarchical territorial states. In England, France, Spain, and the scandinavian countries royal authority grew stronger and the dynastic monarchs began to consolidate their authority. In this difficult task the rulers had to cope with strong and resentful vassals who sometimes possessed resources and armies equal to the king’s. In their struggle to curb their arrogant barons and control the disruptive forces of feudalism, the monarchs sought the aid of the rising towns. The burghers, who found one tyrant preferable to many, and considered the king’s justice, the king’s coinage, and the king’s protection better and more uniform than feudal fragmentation, helped the monarchs to extend their authority. This tentative ‘alliance’ of monarchs and merchants helps to explain the rise of representative government. Within half a century (1250-1300) representatives from the towns were admitted to the royal assemblies in half a dozen states. In Spain the rulers of Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia, in England Edward I, in France Philip IV all summoned delegates of the Third Estate (the ‘commoners’) during this period. In the Holy Roman Empire some of the towns were invited to send representatives to the Diet as early as 1255. One reason for summoning the to%vnsmen was that the townsmen had money and the monarchs needed it. With gold they could hire mercenary companies to fight for them, could buy the new cannon tliat battered down stone castles, could break the entrenched power of the great barons. It is an oversimplification to say that gold and gunpowder destroyed feudalism; what they did was to furnish some of the weapons that helped to destroy it.





ENGLAND. With the decline of the Fairs, Market Day, controlled by the towns, gained in importance; regular supply of needed goods and money brought into towns; foreign merchandise introduced; new industry stimulated; Carta mercatoria, 1303, granted hanses (flemish-london hansa and Hanseatic League) and other merchants freedom of trade and safe conduct in return for payment of custom dues; following the plague, decline in population, together tvith war prosperity, resulted in rise of prices and wages, causing Statutes of Laborers to be passed by royal proclamation, 1349, forcing all able-bodied men not otherwise employed to %vork the land at standard wages; economic and social crisis continued; with passage of graduated poll tax to pay war expenses, 1379, tension mounted, climaxed by peasants’ Revolt, 1381; revolt failed, but was evidence of growing determination of serfs to gain freedom; early Navigation Act, 1381, established trend toward economic intervention in commerce by state. Central Europe GERMANY AND FLANDERS. Hanseatic League still powerful, comprised 90 towns, including Bruges, Flanders, terminus point and great commercial center; inland German cities of Leipzig and Magdeburg; and great Rhine port of Cologne; during this period the League virtually monopolized trade of northern Europe; there also were offices and warehouses in London, Stockholm, Bergen, and Novgorod. Pope granted commercial freedom to the Teutonic Knights in 1263, and they successfully competed with the towns. Eastern Europe Hexabiblos, Byzantine adaptation of Roman civil law, in 6 books with 80 titles, by harmenopulos, judge of thessalonica, published and adopted, 1345.





Asia INDIA. The Sultanate of Delhi, weakened by tamerlane’s invasion, failed to recover its power and northern (moslem-dominated) India split into several independent sultanates. Soudiern India likewise was divided into various independent states in the 15th century, which made it easier for the Portuguese to find allies after their arrival in 1498. CHINA. The Celestial Empire enjoyed a period of relative peace after tlie Mongol conquest. Peking became a magnificent city and new roads and canals were dug by forced labor to meet its needs. Trade expanded but tlie peasantry suffered and popular revolts multiplied. The Mongols ivere never more than a small minority among China’s millions and after a century their military virtues declined. In 1368 they were driven from Peking by Chu Yuan-chang who founded the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) By the opening of the 15th century all China was united under Ming rule. Chinese naval expeditions to the East Indies and the Indian Ocean extended as far as the Persian Gulf, tlie Red Sea, and tlie east coast of Africa. CAMBODIA. The Khmer empire, which had flourished for several centuries, declined and invasions by the Siamese hastened its downfall in die first half of the 15th century.





EDUCATION Europe ITAVf. Villorino da Fellre, Humanist and educator; boarding school at Mantua; humanities taught; close contact between teacher and pupils, novel approacli; adaptation of teaching to need and ability of pupil. Guarino da Verona. Humanist and teacher, Ferrara; translated Greek and Latin classics, wrote Latin grammar. Valla, Lorenzo. Humanist scliolar; translated Herodotus and Thucydides into Latin; considered father of modern critical scholarship in field of history; proved Donation of constantine a forgery. Bessarion. Byzantine humanist; cardinal of Church; introduced neoplatonism to Italy; his collection of Greek manuscripts forms nucleus of St. Mark’s Library, Venice. Gaza, Theodorus of Thessalonica. Greek scholar, Ferrara; wrote standard textbook on Greek grammar. Nicholas V. Pope, humanist sdiolar; librarian for Cosimo de Medici, Florence, 1444; collector of manuscripts; founder of Vatican Library, 1450. NETHERLANDS. Agricola, Rodolphus (Huysman) Humanist scholar; taught classical literature at Heidelberg; opposed scholasticism; spread culture of renaissance throughout Germany. SPAIN. Mebrissensis. 1444-1522. Scholar; studied in Italy; introduced Greek at Seville, Salamanca, Alcala. HUNGARY. bibliotlteca Corvina, library of 10,000 manuscripts and books illuminated by Italian artists; Mathias Corvinus (1458-1490) great patron of learning. Asio INDIA. Moslem College or Madrasah at Bidar established by Muhammed Shah III at suggestion, of outstanding prime minister Mahmud Gavan, a Persian; buildings contained library of 3,000 volumes, quarters for professors and students, mosque, and lecture rooms.





Western Europe BELGIUM. Vesalius, Andreas. Great anatomist at University of Padua, where he wrote masterpiece, De htimani corporis fabrtca (On the Structure of the Human Body) 1543, based on studies made by dissection and covering whole field of human anatomy; noteworthy work on bones, abdominal organs, veins, and brain; first to see importance of skull in classification of mankind; physician to Charles V and Philip II in Madrid. ITALY. Cardano, Geronimo. Physician, mathematician, astrologer: Ars magna (The Great Art) 1545, carried algebra to highest point in mathematics of that time; contained solution of cubic equation (fraudulently obtained from -tartaglia) ; important work on probability; invented improved suspension of compass needle; wrote other important works. Tartaglia, Niccolo. Engineer, mathematician: pioneer in applying mathematics to artillery; wrote treatise on pure and applied mathematics; developed solution for cubic equations which Cardano completed and published; Numbers and Measure, 155660, describes arithmetic of 16th century; anticipated Galileo on theories of falling bodies. Fraeastoro, Girolamo. Physician; considered ‘father of epidemiology’: author, De contagione, 1546; after study of epidemic diseases, attributed spread to transmission of tiny particles or seeds of contagion by contact, either direct, indirect, or long distance; described, named syphilis; first to distinguish among typhus fever, typhoid, bubonic plague. Mattioli, Piefro. Botanist of Siena; commentaries on dioscorides, 1544, most popular book on plants, used as standard text for 200 years; based in part on famous Anicia Juliano manuscript from Constantinople. Ferrari, Lodovieo. Mathematician; worked with Cardano who published work in Ars magna; first to solve biquadratic equation, using ‘ferrari’s method.’





it was a decline in energy, in morale, in military vigor, in economy, in population. Possibly the extraordinary exertions needed to conquer and colonize Spanish America exhausted the nation. Certainly the influx of bullion from America proved a doubtful boon, for it hastened a ‘price revolution.’ Goods became more expensive as gold and silver became cheaper, and Spanish industry and commerce suffered. A general letliargy and contempt for manual labor (understandable in the colonies tvhere such work was left to Indians or slaves) spread to Spain also. Pious Spaniards withdrew to the numerous monasteries and nunneries, but fewer men were available for military ser%’ice and tlie Spanish infantry ceased to be the best in Europe. Finally, Philip IPs successors (Philip III, 1598-1621, Philip IV, 1621-65, and Charles II, 1655-1700) were feeble and incompetent rulers.





ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) succeeded Elizabeth I as James I of England. His Stuart concepts of kingship annoyed the English; and his son Charles, equally stubborn, dissolved Parliament and ruled without it (1629-40). Needing money, he summoned it again (1640) but in 1642 war began between the Royalist and parliamentary forces. Defeated after a six years struggle, Charles was tried and beheaded, and England became a commonwealtli with Oliver Cromwell as Protector. By 1650 Cromwell had brought Scotland and Ireland under control by stem military measures.





Axnerico After 1600 the Frencli, English, and Dutcli broke the spanish-portugucse monopoly in American colonization, a development facilitated by the decline of Spanish and Portuguese sea power. FRENCH COLONIES. The first permnneni French settlements in the St. Lawrence valley (Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1642) established French claims to Canada. In die West Indies they captured Martinique and some lesser islands in 1635. ENGLISH COLONIES, With the founding of Jamestown in Virginia (1607) and Plymouth in massachusetts (1620) the English empire in America had its modest beginning. No gold or silver was found, and die colonists turned to agriculture and trade. Bermuda was settled by die English after 1612. DUTCH COLONIES. As the leading maritime power in the early 17th century the Dutch seized the northern coast of Brazil from the Portuguese, but the latter recovered it by 1654, Farther north the Dutch setded in Guiana and captured Curasao, Tobago, St. Eustatius, and other islands in the Spanish Main. In 1625 they founded Neiv Amsterdam (Neiv York) and claimed the lower valley of die Hudson River. SPANISH COLONIES. Despite declining resources the Spaniards kept and slowly expanded their mainland possessions in America. But diey could not supply many of the goods their colonists needed, and die latter resorted to illegal or ‘contraband’ trade with Frcndi, Dutch,.and English interlopers. PORTUGUESE COLONIES, With die aid of imported African slaves die Portuguese exploited Brazil and developed valuable plantations diere.





GERMANY. Hamburg center of activity with permanent settlement of Merchant Adventurers; Hamburg Bank founded; currency, Mark Banko, created, while currency inflation reached peak; bankruptcy of Welsers, Augsburg, important commercial firm, 1614. ENGLAND. Rivaled netherlands as leading maritime and colonial power; more successful as colonizer largely because of powerful navy which not only defended colonies from attack, but kept sea lanes open for merchant ships; Mun s Discourse of Trade into the East Indies, 1621, and Discourse on england’s Treasure by Forraign Trade, 1630, emphasized importance of merchant group and balance of trade, not only in bullion, but in goods; Petty wrote Political Arithmetic, 1631, advocating state regulation of economic policy of nation; Parliament declared monopolies illegal, 1624; plague in London, 1606; elizabethan Poor Law, 1601, required parishes to provide for needy; Petition of Right against arbitrary imprisonment, martial law, forced loans, billeting, 1628, was outstanding influence for justice; abolition of Court of Star Chamber and High Commission, 1641; permanent economic council formed by Cromwell; tea first imported into England, 1650. RUSSIA. Code of law adopted, 1649, (in force until 1832) to improve administration and eliminate abuses; final establishment of peasant serfdom; abolition of English trade privileges, 1649. Islam PERSIA. Prosperous reign of Abbas I; interested in trade development; held royal silk monopoly; successful dutch-persian commercial treaty. Africa English West Africa Company founded, 1618; Dutch expelled Portuguese from Gold Coast, 1637; French traders founded St. Louis at mouth of Senegal, ^(1637; Swedish African Company founded, 1647.





Central ond Eastern Europe PRUSSIA (Brandenburg). Frederick William, needing money for his armies, introduced rigid economies, improved tax system, raised revenue of domains from 500,000 to 2 million thalers; built better communications, new roads and canals, postal system, stimulated trade; Hollanders received grants of land on condition they would teach brandenburgers better farming methods. RUSSIA. Peasant revolt in Southeast, led by Don Cossacks under Stephen Razin, suppressed with difficulty, 1670-1671; Peter the Great visited Western Europe, 1697; attempted to change a medieval society into a modern one; stimulated trade and manufacturing; encouraged mining of silver; founded more than a hundred factories; planned network of canals to link Russian rivers; experimentation with sheep-breeding, conservation, and other schemes never passed planning stage. Asia CHINA. Dutch entered Chinese trade, 1656; k’ang-hsi opened all Chinese ports to foreign trade, 1685. JAPAN. Great fire destroyed Edo, 1657; Genroku, period of chonin (townspeople) ascendancy, despite restrictive measures, 1688-1704; high bourgeois culture. INDIA, CEYLON. Dutch took Colombo (1656) and Jaffna, portugal’s last possession in Ceylon (1658); first French trading station in India, 1668; English settled in Calcutta, 1690. SIAM. Dutch gained monopoly of Siamese foreign trade by commercial treaty, 1664, but thwarted by French intrigue. Middle East In the Ottoman Empire Mohammed Kuprili, grand vizier, raised money by taxation and confiscations, 1656-61; French secured permission to trade in Persia; first Russian mission to Isfahan, 1664.





Europe ENGLAND. Bangorian controversy in Churcli of England; George I postponed convocation, 1717, and great council inactive for about 135 years; argument between Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor. Wales, and other Church leaders, including William Law. Wesley, John. Founder of Methodism; started preaching salvation dirough faith in Christ alone, 1738; influenced by Moravians; repudiated Calvin, cl 740; issued deed of declaration by which Methodist societies became le^ly constituted, 1784; Methodist Episcopal Churcli later founded in America where he had preached; great evangelist, organizer., Whitefield,, George. calvinistic Methodist evangelist; associated with Wesley untiUl741; influential figure in ‘Great awakening’ in New England, having made seven trips to America, from 1738. Collins, Anthony.1676-1729. Deist; author of Discourse on Free Thinking, 1713, which caused controversy (satirized by J. Swift); set forth position of deists, defended cause of rational theology; Inquiry Concerning Human reedom, 1715, admirable statement 0 necessitarian viewpoint; influenced by Locke and Bayle. Tindal, Matthew. 1653-1733. Deist; ^ ^brty of conscience, and christianity as Old as the Creation, 1730, called ‘bible of deism.’ Warburton, William. 1698-1779. Bishop; The Divine Legation, of ]7H7 ^^sb^ foamed anti-deist polemic, Methodism. Wollaston, William. 1659-1724. Deist Phtlosopher; author of The Religion of Delineated, 1722. religion and to needs of man and.Society.. ^nniisards. Group of againtf ^ Cevennes who revolted against persecution. Holv of the Most orde^r (redemptorists) 1732,





A growing opposition to mercantilism resulted in the development of new economic theories. Quesnay, leader of the physiocrats, under the influence of the popular concept of natural law. suggested that commerce be liberated from state interference, proposed a single tax, and stressed the need for the protection of individual rights in economy and society. Adam Smith s great classic. Wealth of NaUons. established the influenUal doctrine of laissez-faire. New canals facilitated inland transportation and stimulated commerce. technological developments, such as Hargreaves spinning jenny, Arkwright s water frame, Crompton s mule, Cartwright s power loom. Watt s steam engine, and Whitney s cotton gin, heralded the industrial revolution.





The spirit of free sdenlific inquiry, belief in progress, and a fedth in man s ability to reason individually and collectively placed emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge and resulted in an encyclopedic movement represented in France by Diderot, by Johnson in England, and in China by the issuance of a catalogue of the Imperial Library by the emperor, Ch ien Lung. Confidence in man s ability to control his own destiny was evidenced in the outstanding social, political, and economic theories expounded. philosophical ideas in Europe ranged from the rationalism of Voltaire to the transcendentalism of Kant In China, Yiian Mei also stressed the importance of the individual and the need for freedom of expression without dependence on authority.





EDUCATION Europe GERMANY. Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von. philologist, educator; Prussian minister of education, directed and reorganized secondary and higher education, largely following pestalozzi’s ideas; a Founder, University of Berlin, 1810; one of great liberal reformers (with Stein and Hardenberg); standardized courses; expert Kavi, ancient language of Java; brother of Alexander. Herbert, Johann. philosopher, educator; influenced by Pestalozzi and Fichte; emphasized importance of relating new concepts to experience; stressed need for moral education; wrote application of Psychology to Science of Education, Froebel, Friedrich. Founder, kindergarten system; founded first school and introduced system, 1816; stressed good surroundings, self-activity; important work, menschenerziehung (Education of Man), 1826. Gesenius, Wilhelm. 1786-1842. Orientalist; one of greatest Hebrew and biblical scholars; Hebrew Grammar, biblical commentary. Kurtz of Munich made first attempt to educate cripples in specially adapted schools, 1832. SWITZERLAND. Fellenberg, Philipp. agricultural educator; at estate ‘HofsvyP near Bern, 1799, put into practice theory of combining farm training and well-rounded education; first vocational (manual labor) school established, 1816; orphan asylum, 1804; basis for agricultural and industrial education today. FRANCE. Braille, Louis. Inventor of Braille system of printing and svriting for the blind, 1825. Dombasle, Christophe. 1777-1843. established first model farm and agricultural school in France, 1822: improved plough.





Eostern Europe BOHEMIA. Porkinje, Johannes. outstanding Czech physiologist; great microscopist, improved microscope techniques; large ramified nerve cells of cerebellum called ‘purkinje’s cells’; research in embryology, ophihalmolog) ESTONIA. Baer, Karl von. Biologist; referred to as founder of modern embryology; rediscovered the ovum in mammals, 1827, developed germ layer theory; created embryology as branch of comparative anatomy. RUSSIA. lobauhevsky, Nikolai. Mathematician: founder, non-euclidcan geometry, 1826; concept diat more than one parallel to a given line could be drawn through a point. United States Louis Agassiz, zoologist and geologist, worked on glaciers, 1840, fossils, 1833-43, opposed Darwin; James Dana, geologist, theory of permanency of continents and ocean basins, 1847, still valid; John Audubon, ornithologist; William Beaumont, physician, physiology of digestion; Dr. Horace Wells, dentist, used nitrous oxide as anesthesia, 1846. TECHNOLOGY 1826. First all-steam crossing of Atlantic Ocean, by Curasao, Dutcli Steamer. 1826. Samuel Morey obtained patent for one of first internal combustion engines in the United States. 1829. First railroad opened in U. S. (Pennsylvania); first railroad in France, English locomotives. 1834. Cyrus McCormick patented reaper. 1836. Prussian needle-gun, breech loading principle, invented by Dreyse. 1836. Stevens introduced screw propeller. 1836. Samuel Colt invented revolver. 1840. First incandescent electric light invented by Sir William R. Grove. 1846. Elias Howe patented sewing





United Sfotes Era of ‘clipper’ ships reached height with Lightning. 1854, which s.ailed 436 miles in one 24-liour sireidt on maiden voyage; issuance of first-mongage bonds and development ol investment banking speeded western railroad development; first transcontinental railroad completed, 1869; at end of 1854, after decade of expansion, brief period of depression svith stock market crash, tens of diousands unemployed, fall in svestern produce prices, and collapse of land values; recovery of 1855 readied peak of speculation in 1857, resulting in new crash; discovery of gold in Colorado opened that area; Morrill Act, 1861, raised tariff rates; National Bank Aft, 1863, created national banking system: consolidation of labor increased v iih 10 national unions organized between 1863 and 1866; emancipation prodsmation, 1863; Civil War resulted in agricultural prosperity; war needs and demand for farm machinery led to industrial expansion; lumber industry boomed: sharecropping and crop lien system of agriculture in South; Granger movement spread; increased business failures led to Panic of 1873, resumption of specie payments, 18/aAustralio William Clarke, English geologistdiscovered gold, tin, diamonds; desr oped coal fields. Hew Zeoland Grazing leases (14 years) granted1851, establishing large holdings; wooiraising most important industry. million sheep exported by 1871: ptste of crown lands reduced, 1853, increasing number of small farms; popula^n increased wiili discovery of gold, 1^ state-owned railroad opened, 18/^construction of public works desp depression of 1870 5; steamship conn^ tion established between New land and San Francisco: New Shipping Company organized,





After the franco-prussion War of 1870-71 none of the great European powers dasW ■with one another for 43 years. But the final quarter of the 19th century did bring increm ing social tensions within the states as the new technology and new industrial revolution divided employers and employees and socialist parties gained in strength. It also broutjht increasing tensions between the industrialized states because their growing needs for rLr materials and markets quickened a new imperialism. Between 1875 and 1900 Africa was almost entirely parceled out in protectorates and European inroads into Asia gained momentum.; ^ As a result the period 1875-1900 was marked by an epidemic of local colonial wars. In 1882 the British won a dominant voice in Egyptian affairs (partly to safeguard the Suei Canal, which the French had opened in 1869). In 1896-98 the British occupied the Egyptian Sudan; and the following year they clashed with the original Dutch settlers in South Africa (Boer War, 1899-1902). The Italians were defeated in their attempt to invade





Eostern Europe RUSSIA. Defeat in,, a war witli Japan (1904-05) brought Russia close to revolution; Nicholas II promised a constitutional representative government, but the assemblies (Dumas) ’ : lacked real authority. World War I reverses precipitated a decisive revolution in March, 1917. Nicholas abdicated (and was executed with his wife, and children in 1918). A second (November) revolution in 1917 placed radical Marxist leaders in power (Lenin, Trotsky). Russia became a, communist dictatorship headed by Nicolai Lenin (died 1924). Attempts;, by the British, French, Americans,. and Japanese to support the ‘white’ Russian factions against the ‘Red’ dictator■. ship failed (Great Civil War, 191820). At the cost of severe and prolonged suffering for the Russian people the Communist government sur• vived. But discontent among the peasants, lack of capital, and the need for skilled business directors forced Lenin to ease the rigor of the Communist program (New Economic Policy, 1921). With Germany, Austria, and Russia defeated and weakened it was possible ■ to reconstruct Poland, which reappeared on the European map in 1919. It was given a ‘corridor’ to the Baltic Sea at the cost of separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany.; FINLAND. Taken by czarist, Russia, : in 1809, regained its independence after 1917, and established as a demo• cratic republic.. BALTIC STATES. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, which had been ruled by the czars since Peter the Great move the Russian frontiers westward tv o centuries earlier, also became in cpendent republics after the outbria of the Russian Revolution.





Flexner, Abraham. 1866Educator whose report for Carnegie Foundation, 1910, Medical Education in the United States and Canada, hastened much-needed reforms in standards, organization, and curricula of American medical schools; director. Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1930-39; important %vorks. Dillard, James H. contributed much to improvement of Negro education and interracial relations; Dillard University, New Orleans, named lor him. Hall, Edwin. 1855-1938. Physicist; wrote textbooks and manuals which organized teaching of secondary school physics. Adler, Cyrus. 1863-1940. Scholar, editor; librarian, smithsonian Institution; founder, American Jewish Historical Society, editor, Jewish Encyclopedia. Berry, Martha MeChesney, 18661942. Opened schools for underprivileged mountain children of Georgia. Asio CHINA. New system of education adopted, 1905; modeled on Western systems; Medical School founded, Peking, 1906; thousands of temples converted for use as schools; 1,100 graduates of Tsing Hua College sent to United States for advanced study, 1911-27, and many other students sent to study in Japan and Europe; by 1910, over 200 daily, weekly, or monthly journals (including Peking Gazelle, world’s oldest newspaper) were exerting considerable influence on public opinion. JAPAN. By 1905, 94.93 per cent of eligible boys and girls attended elementary schools; in 1909 there were 18,160 common elementary schools and 9,105 with additional special training; two imperial universities at Tokyo Kyoto; at Tokyo in 1909 there were 2.880 students and six colleges of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agricultural; postgraduate courses, a quarterly journal published, and scientific research carried on; public education secular, no religious training permitted in schools; Imperial Library, by 1909, had over half a mil





Europe ENGLAND. Education Act of 1902 abolished boards, placing elementary and secondary education in hands of statutory committees of borough and county councils. For first time in England, provision for secondary education was recognized as duty of the state and brought under public control; in five years the number of secondary schools doubled. ITALY. Montessori, Maria. Educator and physician; originator of method of education for pre-school child: first woman to receive medical degree in Italy, 1894; opened first case det bambini (houses for children), Rome, 1907: development of child’s initiative tlirough individual freedom of action, improvement of sense perception through training, and development of coordination through exercises and games; method used in United States and Europe. Gentile, Giovanni. Organizer and Minister of Education, 1922-24; urged self-realization of individual. RUSSIA. Emphasis in education after triumph of communism was placed on need for industrial, scientific, and military progress and schools of engineering, research, science, medicine, and teacher training tvere established: art galleries and museums were opened to the public; large community recreation and adult education centers established; ballet, music, and arts fostered, all dominated by the state ideology. Bogdanov, A. (Alesander Mainovaki). Philosopher; leader in education and ‘proletarian culture’ movement.





Americas UNITED STATES. Despite a severe iconomic crisis (the Great Depression, 929-33) the American people recov;red tlieir confidence under the New Deal sponsored by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-45). After World Var II the American Republic had ne-half the world’s industrial ma:hinery and a higher standard of livng than any known before. Instead of reverting to isolation as t had done after World War I the Jnited States took a leading part in orming tlie United Nations (headquarters, New York City) and in aidng the war-worn European democrades to recover strength and stability European Recovery Program or Marhall Plan). This concern to support ree peoples was largely motivated by ear that communism would continue.o spread. In 1947 the United States proposed to assist ‘peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures (Truman Doctrine). To strengthen Western Europe against Russian pressure and encroadxment, twelve nations formed a North Atlantic Treaty organization (1949) with the United States in the leading •ole. To preserve a balance in the ’acific area a Southeast Asia Treaty drganization (SEATO) took form in 1954, likewise under American encouragement. The need for it had reen demonstrated by the triumph of communism in China and communist aggression in Korea and Indocliina. In the Americas the United States helped to form (1948) ■ the organization of American States, which in■cludcd the twenty-one New World oublics on terms of absolute equality ’ served to assure tlie pacific settleit of disputes among them.





Europe RUSSIA. Following the 1st FiveYear Plan, 1928, economic regimentation extended control over natural resources, large industry, and agriculture; the 2nd Five-Year Plan, 1932, increased industrial production; after 1936, a planned economy became a war economy; urban population doubled between 1926 and 1939; following the %var, dynamic efforts to increase production, construction of new hydroelectric plants, canals, railroads, and important scientific and technological development made Russia not only Europe’s outstanding power, but a strong competitor for world leadership. ENGLAND, France, West Germany, Belgium, Holland, and Italy all suffered severe economic setbacks through a dislocation of trade balance, loss of colonies, lack of self-sufficiency, and currency depreciation and inflation; attempts have been made to speed economic recovery through the European Recovery Plan, organization for European Economic cooperation, Schuman Plan, European Economic Community (Common Market), with various degrees of success. Middle East Turkey and Greece received aid from the United States following World War II; the Soviet Union extended aid to Syria; the great oil reserves of the Arab nations remained both the hope of economic and social progress in the area and a source of political concern to the rek of the world; Egypt’s new nationalism and control of the Suez Canal sparked Arab cooperation; Israel grew into a progressive, industrialized state but, forced to divide its energies and resources between military and constructive needs, the nation’s future remained uncertain; Middle East attempts to develop more diverse economies, improve agricultural methods, and increase industrialization met with limited success; generally speaking, the majority of the people of the Middle East remained in poverty.





RELIGION Historian Arnold Toynbee has suggested the need for a world-wide religion and undemanding among, all men of all faiths. A trend tosvard the formation of federations or unions witliin the protestant group is seen in the founding of United Church of Canada. 1925: Reformed Church of France, 1938: Church of Christ in Japan (IS denominations merged), 1911; Church of Soutli India. 1947; fvangelical Church in Germany (27 independent regional churches confederated), 1948; and Council of Liberal Churches, 1953. United States GroAvth of evangelical movements; le.iding theologians include Niebuhr, 1 jilieh, tvho espouse a neo-ortliodoxy within Protestantism; Buchman, Oxford Group, founded Moral Rearmament Program; popular writers, speakers, including Bishop Fulton J. Sheen, ■Billy Graham, Norman Vincent Peale. Asia PHIUPPINFS. Aglipay, Gregorio. Founded ^ Philippine independent ChurA; bishop; over one million followers; retained some elements of catliolicism, later established friendly relations with Unitarians. INDO-CHINA. Coo-Doism. Religious and ethical movement organized unleadership of le-van-trung, • •6, Annamese group originated on island. 1919; headquarters at Saigon; attempt to rccondle AVestern and Eastern ideas.





EDUCATION UNESCO (United Nations educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). established in 1945 for purpose of furthering world peace by removing social, religious, and racial tensions: encouraging free interchange of ideas and of cultural and scientific achievements and improving and expanding education; Julian Huxley, Great Britain, served as director general, 1946-48; Jamie Torres Bodet, Mexico, 1948-52; Luther Evans, 1952-1958; Vittorino Veronese, Italy, 1958United States Following World War II, under G.I. Bill of Rights, 8,000,000 ex-service personnel received educational training; growth in population increased problems; Committee for White House Conference on education in 1956 recommended that expenditures for education be doubled within 10 years, that pay scales be doubled to attract more and better teachers; endorsed emeigency Federal aid for school construction; urged communities to seek solution to integration problems (by 1956, 250,000 Negro students had been integrated into white schools); proposed extending public health and safety services to parochial and private schools. The development of earth satellites and intercontinental missiles increased interest in science education and in the need for basic research laboratories; the growing pressure for language courses and an understanding of the lives, beliefs, and cultures of other peoples of the world extended the school curricula. Europe ENGLAND. legislation insuring fulltime compulsory education for children five to 15, passed in 1945. GERMANY. Attempted to link education with industry in a produaive union and to shape both totvard military ends; following the defeat of Hitler, a re-educating process became necessary’ with an aim toward an understanding of world responsibility and cooperation.