letters: Dictionary Information

Letter —n. 1 character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech. 2 a written or printed message, usu. Sent in an envelope by post. B (in pl.) Addressed legal or formal document. 3 precise terms of a statement, the strict verbal interpretation (letter of the law). 4 (in pl.) A literature. B acquaintance with books, erudition. —v. 1 inscribe letters on. 2 classify with letters.  to the letter with adherence to every detail. [french from latin littera]

Letter of credit n. Letter from a bank authorizing the bearer to draw money from another bank.

letters: Geographic Locations

2792499 letterhoutem Letterhoutem letterhautem, letterhoutem 50.92768 3.8797 P PPL BE VLG VOV 41 41063 1206 50 Europe/Brussels 2020-04-05

6941593 Gletterens Gletterens 46.89489 6.93689 P PPL CH FR 1001 2022 696 510 485 Europe/Zurich 2013-02-26

3032251 Bletterans Bletterans Betterans,Bletran,Bletteran,Bletterans,bu lei te lang,Блетран,Блеттеран,布勒特朗 46.74673 5.45444 P PPL FR 27 39 392 39056 1427 201 Europe/Paris 2016-02-18

2644584 Letterston Letterston 51.92757 -4.99141 P PPL GB WLS Y7 00NS031 1245 131 Europe/London 2017-06-12

2962961 letterkenny Letterkenny LTR,Leitir Ceanainn,Leterkeni,Leterkenis,Letterkenni,Letterkenny,Leturkeni,Littyr Kennain,lai te ken ni,Летеркени,Леттеркенни,Летъркени,لیٹرکینی,萊特肯尼 54.95 -7.73333 P PPL IE U 06 19274 8 Europe/Dublin 2022-01-16

6534758 Lettere Lettere 40.70491 14.54494 P PPLA3 IT 04 NA 063039 5605 353 Europe/Rome 2012-02-15

letters: Historical Excerpts

General Economy Agriculture. Early peoples were skillful shepherds, farmers; well-irrigated fields yielded vegetables, grain, dates, olives, vineyards, fruit orchards; most domesticated animals now known were worked in early period; cattle were bred; oxen joined to plough; elephant may have been tamed in India, where water buffalo were used and domestic fowl believed to have originated; linen, flax, and cotton produced in Egypt; many varieties of fruits and grains grown in Fertile Crescent. Commerce. Trade developed when unfavorable agricultural conditions existed or need arose to dispose of surplus products; babylonians were early businessmen and traders; trade with Egypt flourished by 2700; phoenicians left rocky terrain for the sea cl 500; traded in metals, glass, ivory, purple dyes; bought raw materials, metals, and slaves from Lebanese in return for wool; phoenicians credited with first organized slave trade; Cretans traded their pottery, textiles, and metal goods with Egypt in 2d millennium bc; iron, tin, and silver from western Europe supplied the eastern Mediterranean; carried largely by phoenicians, leading merchant sailors by 1200; later by Greeks; silk, known in China as early as 3d millennium, carried overland to India, cl 500, later to Middle East. Finance. Barter the first universal method of exchange; gold and silver came into use at an early date; in China copper coins replaced cowrie shells as the principal measure of value; babylonians and Assyrians excellent financiers; used clay tablets; established business forms, including contracts, letters of credit, commercial loans, and receipts; taxes and rates of interest were regulated.





Down of Science Writing and Alphabets. [Pictogram (images), earliest method; familiar objects represented by simple picture; simplified, conventionalized to convey ideas, then, a definite word;] important advance seen in adaptation of pictographic character to represent particular syllables; Chinese picture witing, more than 15,000 characters, represented objects, abstract ideas, sounds. Egyptians developed hieroglyphics, an ideographic and syllabic system; cuneiform used in Fertile Crescent evolved into syllabic stage; similar method of pictographs used by Mayans and Aztecs. Egyptians later developed semialphabetic writing, symbol represented only first sound of a word, or letter sound; phoenicians adopted idea of symbol for letter sounds; created first Semitic alphabet, entirely consonantal; improved by Greeks, who added vowels; Etruscans believed to have introduced alphabet in Italy; Romans gave it conventionalized form. Scripts. Egyptian bookkeepers and scribes found elaborate symbols impractical; developed simplified, cursive form of hieroglyphics, called hieratic (priestly); later, simpler form, demotic (of the people), in common use. Writing Materials. Clay tablets used in Mesopotamia; Egyptians invented papyrus, tvhich replaced bones, clay, ivory, leather, linen; used pigments (ink) applied with fine brush. Astronomy. Sumerians began to map heavens; lunar calendar included prediction of eclipses; year divided into 12 months, 360 days of hours, minutes, and seconds, based on unit of 60; Hsia calendar of China, cl500, founded on relatively sound astronomical knowledge; successful Phoenician navigation presumes observation of stars and awareness of curvature of earth. Medicine. Remarkably advanced by Egyptians, who practiced surgery, catalogued and classified disease, made excellent study of blood, studied anatomy, developed technique of mummification. 4





Rome Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus) Poet, philosopher; foremost disciple of Epicureanism; On the Nature of Things, didactic poem written in dactylic hexameter, expressed views; contains scientific theories of structure of atom, evolution, biology upheld by modern investigation; dignified, impassioned style. Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero) Great political orator, famed essayist, philosopher; master of Latin prose style; The Laws, restated Stoic theory of natural law; influenced later writers. Caesar (Caius Julius Caesar) General, statesman, historian, dramatist, poet, letter-writer; commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars, masterpieces of clear, concise diction and models of succinct Latin prose style. Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro), outstanding Latin poet; composed Bucolics or Eclogues, 37; Georgies 30, extolling rural life; masterpiece, Aeneid, written to glorify Rome s past; though outranked by Homer’s. Odyssey, greater direct influence on subsequent European literature. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus). Major lyric poet, satirist, critic; modified Epicurean philosophy of happiness; famous for Odes, Satires; succeeded Vergil as chief literary figure of Rome. Catullus (Caius Valerius Catullus). Master lyric poet; ardent passion, lack of restraint, simplicity. Lucilius, Caius. Poet, set style and form of satire; vigorous. Livy (Titus Livius) Glorified Rome in monumental History of Rome; brilliant story-teller. Sallust (Caius Sallustius Crispus). History of Rome, 78-67, lost; monographs; Conspiracy of Catiline, defense of Caesar; lucid, direct style; excellent biographical characterization, political analysis. Tibullus (Albius Tibullus) Leading poet of circle of Messala; known for cliarm of amatory elegies. Propertius (Sextus propertius) of Maecenas; versatile, prolific ofigioa witer of elegies.





ROMAN EMPIRE. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Leading Stoic philosopher, writer; concerned with morality in terms of abstract justice and individual worth. Epictetus. Greek freedman; elaborated Stoic emphasis on duty, humanitarian doctrine; Discourses; brotherhood. Plotinus. Egyptian; founder of Neoplatonism: system in which a mystical union with God, ultimate reality, is attained through asceticism, not reason; promise of eternal happiness; important work, the Enneads. Porphyry. Disciple of Plotinus; edited his writings; adapted aristotelian Logic to neoplatonism in introduction to the Categories; controversial. Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) Poet; perfected form of elegiacs; famous for love poetry; most important work Metamorphoses; comprehensive expression of ancient mythology; brilliant, subtle humor, creative imagination. Petronius, Gaius. Satirist; portrayed deterioration of Roman morals; Epicurean philosophy in prose tale or novel The Satyricon. Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) Satirist, epigrammist; wrote of manners, foibles of contemporary Rome with wit, sardonic cleverness. Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis). Satirist; master of invective; aphorisms. Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. Major historian; exceptional stylist; Histories, Annals, important works. Pliny, the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus). Letters; intimate picture of Roman life. Apuleius, Lucius. Prose narrator; author of metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) pictturesque novel, partly real, mostly fantasy; strong influence. Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius tranquillus) Biographer; excellent Lives of the Caesars, cl20 ad, most important work; Lives of Eminent Men. Lucan, Marcus Annaeus. Epic poet; Pharsalia (The Civil War) major work.





al-Kindi. Arabic philosopher; encyclopedist; follower of Aristotle, influenced by Neoplatonism; Theology of Aristotle, opposed by traditionalists. al-Farabi. Philosopher; commentaries helped introduce Aristotle to Arabs; developed early method of reconciling Aristotle with Islam. Saadia ben Joseph. Leading medieval Jewish scholar; wote in Arabic; Book of Beliefs and convictions, best work; aristotelian thinker. Europe Erigena, John Scotus. Irish; foremost European philosopher of period; asserted belief in human reason, freedom of will; greatly influenced by Platonic works; On the Division of Nature, important work; pantheistic attitude condemned. cassiodorus, Flavius. Christian scholar; founded community of scliolar monks; histories; theological works; Institutes of Sacred Letters, compendium of seven liberal arts, first of important guides for study. Bede the Venerable (Baeda) English monk, scholar; ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Einhard (eginhardus) Frank; teaclrer, author of excellent readable biography of Charlemagne. Isidore of Seville. Bishop; etymologies or Origines, encyclopedic compilation of classical learning: first great Christian encyclopedia, valued by scholars throughout Middle Ages; De rerum nature, treatise on physical science. Servatus Lupus. Latin scholar. Book of Three Questions discussed problems of predestination, redemption, and free will; early criticism. Gerbert of Aurillac. Universal scholar, teacher; famed letters. Epics. The Lay of Hildebrand, Teutonic saga, 68 lines extant; Beowulf, considered greatest Old English epic, 3,182 lines; Cynewulf (c750800) anglo-saxon poet; Waltharius, written by Ekkehard, c930. Old German epic; Digenis Akritas, Byzantine epic of heroic frontier soldiers.





Western Europe Church Music. Gregorian Music. Composed as nionodic chant, sung in unison without harmonic support or fixed or regular structure of bars or time; Pope Gregory (590-604) credited with compilation and editing of plain-songs or chants; antiphonarius canto, great collection of ancient ecclesiastical music, 600 compositions; Gregorian Chant introduced into England, Spain, Trance (Franks), and Germany; by 11th century, universal musical language of Roman Catholic Church and of europeorganum or Diaphonia. Attempt to harmonize a melody or add a second voice; followed line of cantus firmus by adding second voice a perfect fifth or perfect fourtlr below the principal voice; two-part organum, 10th century, known as ‘Fifth Simple’ or ‘Fourth Simple’; Mxtsica enchiriadis (Hucbald disputed autlior) first written discussion of organum, described composite four-part organum. Odo. Abbot of Cluny. 927-42; fostered clioral music; author, Dialogus de rnusfca; devised earliest effective system of notation; assigned letters to tones arranged in orderly progression; enabled teadu ng methods to be recorded; clrants previously learned by rote; important influence. Veni Creator Spirilus famous hymn of 9th century; tJiought to be work of Rhabanus Maurus, German monk. lilurgical Drama. Product of religious rites, as in Greece; readings of Gospels, rendered in di.alogue, interspersed rvith hymns, responses by choir, created dramatic effect of Mass; stories of Advent and resurrection enacted by priest on altar steps; additional spoken parts added or sung at feast days; Latin language of Church drama. GERMANY. Hroswifha. c935-1000. “Nun; convent of Gandersheim: six plays, modeled on Terence; comedies, only exceptions to mystery plays; important only as examples of literary drama of period.







Europe Romanesque Art. Religious art derived from classic and oriental sources; dynamic, expressive, naturalistic. Architecture. Developed from Roman basilica; used principally in abbey churches of Italy and France; ornamentation added; wheel or rose windows illuminated tlie nave; towers. Campanile (bell) at Pisa (Leaning Tower); importance of stone construction; introduction of latin-cross plan; choir section enlarged; Sant’ Ambrogio, Milan, illustrated application of rib vault to roofing basilica, major innovation; abbaye-aux-hommes (St. £tienne), Caen, represented further development by Normans of ribbed vault principle; nave divided into bays with higher vaults; abbaye-aux-dames (St. Trinitd) neighboring church, used concealed flying buttress; foreshadowed pointed-arcli principle; Norman style adopted in England; Winchester Cathedral (cl 093), Tower of London (1 078-1 128), Norwich (1096-11 10) and Durham Cadiedrals (1093-1128), westminster Abbey (Church of Peter the Apostle) 1056, Ifllcy Parish Church, Oxford (1160), peterborough Cathedral (cl HO), excellent examples of Romanesque English architecture. Monastic Romanesque Style. Third Abbey Cliurch at Cluny; basilica, many-windowed derestorj; highest contemporary barrel vaulting; first external flying buttresses; altar columns of surpassingbeauty. Sculpture. Superb sculptural capit.-ils, relief compositions, including the tympanum over the central portal of Abbey Church of La Madeleine at Wrelay, France; examples of Romanesque sculpture, integral parts of architectural design; vitality shown in trumeau (central post) between double doors of wide apertures. illuminated Manuscripts. outstanding work done by monastic orders; Chiniac copyists and illuminators lc.aders in art; freedom of, im.aginalion; initial letters became complex designs; pen drasvings, small paintings. ibn-Zuhr tAvenzoar,;^





EDUCATION Europe Founding of great colleges and universities, including Sorbonne, Paris, 1252; Lisbon, 1290; Balliol College, Oxford, 1268; Alcala, Portugal, 1293; Rome, 1303; Prague, 1348; Grenoble, 1339; Valladolid, 1346; Vienna, 1365; New College, Oxford, 1379; Heidelberg, 1386, and others. Medicine added to curriculum at University of Bologna, 1316, though montpellier remained foremost medical scliool. ITALY. Petrarch, Francesco. outstanding scholar; first great ‘man of letters’: with Boccaccio, spurred revival of interest in Latin and Greek classics: helped found chair in Greek at University of Florence; constructed first modern map of Italy. Salutati, Coluccio. As Chancellor of Florence, made study of classics fashionable. chrysoloras, Manuel. Greek scholar; gave first public lectures on classics; UTote first Greek grammar; translations of Plato and Homer; introduced Greek Literature to West; teacher of many famous humanists. Planudes Maximus. Byzantine monk and scliolar; translations from Greek into Latin; edition of Greek Anthology, long a standard work; prose collection of Aesop’s Fables important. Asia CHINA. empire-wide system of schools confined to memorization of Confucian classics, letter-svriting, and composition; high examinations given orally at Peking, primarily for selection of government officials. Chu Shih-chieh. Published textbook, Suan-hsio Chi-meng (matliematical Study introduction), 1299; influential in Japan, lost in China until 1839. Wang Ling-Iing. Author of primer used for 600 years in education. ^ • JAPAN. Zen Buddhist priests dV veloped educational system.





cl368-cl450 Paston Letters





Europe ITALY, Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, Conte. Humanist; leading cholar, mystic; owned largest, most varied library of the time; posted list j£ 900 theses on variety of subjects, 1486. Ficino, Marsilio, Neoplatonist; headed Cosimo de Medici’s Platonic Academy at Florence; translated Plato into Italian, 1482, version regarded best; leader of humanist movement. Boiardo, Matteo. Poet; epic Orlando innamoratoj transformed carolingian hero, Roland, into hero of romantic love story; with Lorenzo, Canzoniere, 1440, best of century. Medici, Lorenzo de. Merchant prince; patron of arts; wrote love lyrics, rustic poems, carnival songs, sonnets, and odes in Italian, establishing the vernacular language as acceptable. Pulci, Luigi. Poet, known for burlesque of romantic chivalric epic, II Morgante Maggiore, 28 cantos, 1483. ENGLAND. Lydgate, John. Poet, monk; prolific, influential, follower of Chaucer; principal works. The Fall of Princes, The Siege of Thebes, Temple of Glass. Hoccleve, Thomas (or Occleve) Poet; chief work. The Regiment of Princes, written in Chaucerian tradition. Paston Letters. Collection of letters in the vernacular describing middleclass English life.





Central Europe NETHERLANDS. Ockeghem, Jean de (Joannes Okeghem). b. Tours. Composer, founder of so-called second netherlands school; one of great music teachers of all time; pupils founded schools: vocal polyphony became varied under his guidance; many forms, such as medieval rondo, ballad, disappeared; master of counterpoint; developed canon; wrote masses, motets, chansons. Obrecht, Jacob. Contrapuntist; master; music based on folk themes, giving work solid, earthy quality of great strength, harmony; wrote masses, motets, church and secular works; taught in Florence; teacher of Erasmus. Agricola, Alexander, cl 446-1 506, Belgian: composer of motets, four-part songs, and a volume of five masses. GERMANY. Isaac, Heinrich. Possibly Flemish, composer; wrote both secular and church music; thought to be first German contrapuntal master; worked for Lorenzo de Medici, 148492; famous songs, intrumental music. Beheim, Michel. 1416-74. Meistersinger; court singer in many countries. Fulde, Adam von. b. cl450. Foremost German musical scholar of century; author. Tract on Music, 1490. wolkenstein, Oswald von. 13771445. Last of medieval lyric minnesingers. PRINTING OF MUSIC. Ulrich Han (Hahn) ’s Missale, published in Rome, 1476, printed from type; lines (staves) in red in one impression, notes in black printed in second; notes with time-values printed at Venice, 1480; Ugo de Rugeriis at Bologna, 1487, printed earliest known complete partcomposition using wood blocks; first English music-printing, westminster, 1495; Ottaviano dei Petrucd (14661539) received his letters patent, 1498; for years regarded as actual inventor of art of printing music with movable type; first volume, Harmonice musices Odhecaton, landmark containing 96compositions of chief franco-flemish composers, first complete volume of part-music printed.





As Holy Roman Emperor he was also concerned to rally German forces to resist the Turkish advance in southeastern Europe. But he was handicapped by the distrust of German princes who feared to increase his authority, by his wars with France, and by a religious scliism, tlie Protestant reformation, that split half Europe away from the Roman Catholic Church. For over a century criticism of the papacy had been growing stronger. Laxity and corruption among the clergy, indolence and immorality in the monasteries, and the transfer to Rome of revenues raised throughout Europe prepared tire way for a revolt. The power of the Church depended in essence on the doctrine that its priests alone could hear confession, grant absolution, and so assure the salvation of the soul. The authority of the pope to issue ‘indulgences’ which freed a sinner from the penalties of his sin stimulated a brisk trade in these ‘letters of pardon’ and brought money to the papal treasury. In 1517 a German theologian, Martin Luther, drafted ninety-five Theses’ attacking this system. Luther’s assertion tliat any Christian believer could be saved by faith, without the mediation of a priest, struck a critical blow at the whole hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church and the doctrine of papal supremacy. The Revival of Learning, the critical and secular spirit diffused by the renaissance, the introduction of the printing press (after cl450), and the increase in literacy all favored the spread of Luther’s teaching. But there were other more material interests involved. The lands and revenues of the Church and the monastic orders were a tempting prize.





Western Europe FRANCE. Rabelais, Fransois. Writer monk, physician; author of Gargantua and Pantagruel, considered one of the world s masterpieces of satire; allegorical comedy, published 1532-62, with theme, man is essentially good; sharp opponent of scholasticism. Bude, Guillaume (Budaeus). Humanist scholar; important figure in intellectual life of France; founded College de France, and library, Fontainebleau; fostered Greek learning; work in linguistics founded discipline of philology; expounded political, economic theories. Marot, Clement. cl496-1544. Poet; first to use sonnet form in French. ITALY. machiavelli, Niccolb. Famed author of The Prince, 1532; pioneer in realistic political and social analysis; visualized strong Italian state; theme, justification of power; still influential. Pomponazzi, Pietro. Philosopher; one of first to question dogmas of scliolasticism; De immortalitate, 1516, attacked interpretation of Aristotle by Aquinas; De incantationibus, 1520, stressed evolution of man and nature. castiglione, Baldassare, Conte. Fa• mous for Cortegiano (The Courtier), 1518, treatise on social problems, intellectual accomplishments, and social graces; picture of court life; important influence. Ariosto, Lodovico. Epic and lyric poet; known for Oriando furioso, epic treatment of Roland story, published in 1532. Bembo, Pietro. 1470-1547. Humanist, arbiter of Italian letters; intent on preserving classical tradition. Aldus Manutius (Teobaldo Manila nucci). 1450-1515. Venetian printer; published Greek and Roman classics; first to use italic type, 1501. Giorgio Vasari wTote an important, secular work. Lives of the Artists; Jacopo Sannazaro s pastoral romance influenced development of Italian prose; Francesco guicciardini, excellent historian of period of Italian wars.





ENGLAND. Milton, John. Great poet; L’ Allegro and II Penseroso, 1632, and elegy, Lycidas, 1638, written in first (Horton) period. Bacon, Francis. philosopher, statesman; formulated inductive method of modem science as opposed to a priori method of scholasticism; best-known writing, Essays, 1597. Donne, John. Poet and divine; profoundly religious and philosophical poetry; considered outstanding metaphysical writing; inspired later poets (T. S. Eliot) Jonson, Ben. Lyric poet, critic; literary dictator for quarter of century; honest, straightforward opinions, admirably expressed; important exponent of neoclassicism; dramatist. Fludd, Robert (or Flud) Mystical pantheist; spiritual and physical truth identical; scientific experiments. FRANCE. Descartes, Ren4. philosopher, scientist; attempted to extend matliematical principles to all fields of human knowledge; developed methodology in Discourse on Method, 1637; rejected authoritarian system for universal doubt; belief in potver of the mind shown by famed maxim: I think, tlierefofe I am.” Gassendi, Pierre. philosopher, scientist; attacked aristotelian and Cartesian philosophies; advocated empirical method and Epicurean doctrines (atomism); attempted to reconcile science and theology. Balzac, Jean. influential in reform of French prose style with Letters, 1624. Acaddmie Frangaise, established by Riclielieu, 1635, led in quest for perfection in form; movement railed ‘Academism.’





Western Europe ENGLAND. Enclosure movement reached its height with passage of acts by Parliament making system general throughout country; loss of Thirteen American Colonies of North America and doctrine of laissez-faire urged by Smith led England to change her commercial policy toward her remaining colonies and to discard mercantilism; coal industry grew rapidly, iron exportation began; Pitt introduced income tax, 1799; Robert Owen successfully experimented with social reforms (New Lanark, Scotland, 1800); Malthus, economist and social philosopher, wrote famed study. Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798; Blackstone, outstanding jurist, published commentaries on Law of England, 1764-69; John Howard secured passage of Act of 1777 providing for better prison conditions. FRANCE. aristocracy, comprising 2 per cent of population, controlled more than two-thirds of the landed wealth; social injustice, arbitrary imprisonment under the letters de cachet, elements of feudalism evidenced in corvee (enforced labor on roads), tallies (land tax), and tithes (tenths to Church) kept peasants condition desperate and led to Revolution; Turgot, finance minister, tried to reform corrupt finances, break guild system that strangled trade, introduce economy in government, and tax the privileged classes; failed; Necker issued Compte Rendu, report on financial conditions, 1781, dismissed; during Revolution, assignats, paper currency, issued by National Assembly to redeem public debt and counterbalance deficit; freedom of trade introduced, 1791; power of guilds reduced; slavery abolished in colonies, 1794. ITALY. Cesare Beccaria, economist and jurist, anticipated theories of Smith and Malthus; important in criminal jurisprudence; advocated reforms that gained international acceptance. PORTUGAL. Great earthquake at Lisbon, 1755, accompanied by fire and flood, killed thousands.





anticlerical, physiocrat, constitutionalist; theory of probability in mathematics, 1785, vital contribution. Chenier, Andr4. Considered outstanding writer of classic French verse in 18tli century. Condillac, Etienne. 1714-80. philosopher, psychologist; Treatise on Sensations, 1754. Helv4tius, Claude. 1715-71. Influenced by Locke; De V esprit, 1758, attacked both church and state; utilitarian, influenced Bentham and Mill. Crevecoeur, Michel. 1735-1813. Fame rests on essays. Letters from an American Farmer, 1782. ITALY. Galiani, Fernando. Political economist; leader in formulating modem theory of value and realistic, historical approadi to economics; tvrote on tariff and trade. Gozzi, Gasparo. Essayist; influenced by Addison, Steele; revived interest in Dante. Parini, Giuseppe. 1729-99. Poet; known for satiric epic, II Giomo. SPAIN^ Isla, Jos6. outstanding satirical novel of period. History of the Famous Preacher Friar Geruridio of Campazas, alias Zotes, 1758-70.





ENGLAND. Smith, Adam. Scottish autlior of Wealth of Nations, 1776; called founder of political economy; tvorld influence. Bentham, Jeremy. philosopher, political tlieorist; founder of utilitarianism, Johnson, Samuel. lexicographer, critic; famed for Dictionary of the English Language, 1755, a monumental achievement; essays; Lives of the Poets; biography; period sometimes called ‘Age of Johnson.’ Gibbon, Edward. Historian; author, important Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776-88. Burke, Edmund. Statesman, ■writer; known for advocacy of liberal treatment for American colonies; championed free trade and abolition of slavery; tvrote eloquent interpretation of constitutional principle. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Poet, critic; known for Rime of the Ancient Mariner, published in Lyrical Ballads, 1798; father of modem shakespearian studies; excellent critic. Goldsmith, Oliver. Novelist; Vicar of Wakefield, 1766, masterpiece of ‘domestic’ literature. Burns, Robert. 1759-96. Scottish national poet; Kilmarnock Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, 1786. Boswell, James. 1740-95. Famed Scotch biographer of Samuel Johnson: writer of letters and journals, Reid, Thomas. 1710-96. Scottish philosopher of common-sense school. Americas UNITED STATES. Thomas Jefferson OTote the declaration of Independence; Thomas Paine, the outstanding pamphlets. Common Sense, Rights of Man, and Age of Reason; Benjamin Franklin, autobiography and Poor richard’s Almanack; Philip Freneau, ‘Poet of the American Revolution’; James Madison, largely responsible for the Federalist Papers, 1788. BRAZIL. Jos6 da Gama wote epic, O Uruguay, anti-jesuit account of campaign against Guarani Indians, 1769; Jos(5 de Durao, the epic CaramuTu; Jesuit histories.





Centrol and Eastern Europe GERMANY. Kant, Immanuel. Extremely influential philosopher ■(dio returned to dualism of thought (reason and faith, letter and spirit); reaction against dependence on reason alone; basis of idealism and romanticism of following century; author, Critique of Pure Reason, 1781. Goethe, Wolfgang von. Considered greatest ■writer in Gertnan literature; poet; author of first romantic novels of importance in Germany, Sorrows of Young Werther, 1774, and Wilhelm Meister, 1796; part of Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) movement. Schiller, Friedrich von. Poet, second only to friend, Goethe; founded literary journal. mendelssohn, Moses. philosopher, essayist; wrote on esthetic subjects. Fichte, Johann. metaphysician, philosopher; Kantian exponent of s) stem of transcendental idealism. Herder, Johann. 1744-1803. particularly interested in developing German nationalism and establishing a German culture; called ‘founder of German romanticism. Melchior Grimm spread ideas of encyclopedists through Europe. RUSSIA. Radishchev, Aleksandr. Liberal, criticized serfdom, religion. Denhavin, Gavriil. Greatest^ Russian lyric poet before Pushkin. Asia CHINA. Tai Chen. Scliolar, rationalist philosopher; tvrote on Mencius, Origin of Goodness stressed mans intelligence and individual wortli. Tsao Hsueh-chin. Wrote 80 cliaptcrs of Dream of the Red Chamber, completed by Kao Ou, with 40 chapters, published, 1792; considered greatest Chinese novel. Yuan Mei. Critic, essayist; stressed importance of originality: letters. Amyot, Joseph. Frendi missionary, author of ■works on Chinese history and sdence, 1776-89. JAPAN. Norinaga, Moloori. S^oiar, poet; published Kojikiden, u(A~ 96.





Central Europe GERMANY. Helmholtz, Hermann. Versatile scientist; extended application of law of conservation of energy, and formulated it mathematically, 1847; henceforth, energyconsidered constant and indestructible; thermodynamics and electrodynamics; pioneer in physiological optics. Ohm, Georg. Physicist; established quantitative relation between electric current and electromotive force in same conductor, 1827: ohm, practical unit of electrical resistance. Schleiden, Matthias. Botanist; pioneer in development of cell theory; photogenesis, plant tissues composed of cells, 1838; importance of nucleus. Muller, Johannes. Founder of scliool of mechanistic physiology; study of nert ous system; founder of scientific medicine in Germany; law of specific nerve energies,’ 1826. Hofmeister, Wilhelm. 1824-77. Botanist: demonstrated alternation of generations in flowering plants. Virchow, Rudolph. 1821-1902. Pathologist; founder of cellular pathology; versatile. AUSTRIA. Doppler, Christian. 180353. mathematician, physicist; Doppler s principle, measuring motion of stars, important in astronomy; formulated, 1842. BELGIUM. Quetelet, Adolphe. statistician, astronomer; one of first to apply mathematical statistics to social study of man (sociology): most important work, A Treatise on Man, 1835. DENMARK. Steenstrup, Johann. ardiaelogist, geologist; important work. On the alternation of generations, 1841. SWEDEN. Berzelius Jons. Chemist; developed modern system of lettersymbols, formulas in chemistry; analyzed numerous chemical compounds; recognized effect named catalysis; prepared highly accurate table of atomic weights. SWITZERLAND. Naegeli, Karl. 181791. Botanist, Memoir on the Nuclei, 1844^6, studies of cells, making distinction between nuclear material and protoplasm.





RUSSIA. Pushkin, Aleksandr. Greatest Russian poet; founder of national literature: Eugene Onegin, 1831, though verse, considered first Russian novel, masterpiece. Gogol, Nikolai. short-story witer, novelist; distinguished romantic novels, important for introduction of realism to Russian literature. Lermontov, Mikhail. Transition between Pushkin and Gogol; great romantic novel, A Hero of Our Time, 1840; foreshadowed realism with The Demon, Borodino. Krylov, Ivan. 1768-1844. Volumes of fables, classics of their kind. Belinsky, Vissarion. 1810-48. Founder, modern Russian literary criticism: liberal, realistic, social responsibility important in literature. Lebensohn, Abraham. 1794-1874. grandfather of modern Hebrew poetry; cliief poet of early Haskalah (Enlightenment). Americas UNITED STATES. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Essayist; transcendentalist; poet; emphasized individual freedom and self-reliance, influencing democratic ideas; Essays, 1841. Poe, Edgar Allan. Poet, novelist, critic; famous for mystery stories. Murders in the Rue Morgue, Purloined letter, etc. Webster, Noah. Lexicographer; American Dictionary of English Language, 1828, revised 1840. Cooper, James Fenimore. Popular novelist; Indian tales and sea stories. Prescott, William. Historian; excellent History of Conquest of Mexico, 1843, and Conquest of Peru, 1847. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. Popular poet; introduced Eimopean literature to America as teacher. ARGENTINA. Echeverria, Esteban. Rimas, 1837, introduced European romanticism to Spanish-America. Japan Tachibana Akemi. Broke with traditional waka poets; supported Emperor against Tokugama shogunate.





Eostern Europe RUSSIA. Bunin, Ivan. Poet, novelist, short-story wher; Nobel Prize, 1933; The Gentleman from San Francisco; The Well of Days, 1933. Sholokhov, Mikhail. Epic novelist; The Silent Don, 4 volumes, 1928-40; stories of the Don Cossacks; Seeds of Tomorrow, 1932-33; The Science of Hatred, 1942. Simonov, Konstantin. Novelist, dramatist, war correspondent; Stalingrad Fights on, 1942; Days and Nights, 1945; No Quarter, 1943. Tolstoy, Aleksey. Referred to as dean of Russian letters; Peter 1, 192934; Bread, 1938. Asio JAPAN. Kikuchi Kan. Leading literary figure: influenced by Western authors; neo-realist; editor-publisher, Bungei Shunju, literary magazine; novels, plays. Shimazaki Toson (Haruki). Novelist; Hakai (Apostasy), 1906, novel with sociological theme; Before the Dawn, 1935, best work; great lyric poet. Mishima Yuiko. 1925Promising novelist; Sound of Waves, 1956. CHINA. Cho Shu-ien (known as Lusin or Lu Hsun). Leading w-riter of fiction and master of pai hau (plain language); short stories; excellent stylist; Biography of Ah Q. Kuo Mo-jo. Writer and scholar; The Goddess, long poem; five volumes of verse; six volumes of essays; plays. Ho Shih. Scholar, writer, diplomat; prominent in literary renaissance, advocated use of colloquial speech in literature; author of many works. Lin Yufang. chinese-american tvrik er; My Country and My People, 1935; Wisdom of China and India, 1942. Middle East EGYPT. Husayn, Taha. Leader of modem movement; liberal, intereste in classics; Future of Culture of Egypt, 1939, suggested Egypt belonged to Hellenic world; pre-islamic h terature. TURKEY. Halaide Edib (Adivar). Novelist; The Clown and His Daughter, 1935; Turkey Faces West, 1928.